Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. In row 5 (items 13, 14, and 15) people may be of low rank because of accidents or bad luck. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. Trust may develop. Snow University of California, Irvine Symbolic interactionism provides a major contribution to understanding inequality by illuminating the various manifestations and contexts of ine-quality at the micro, everyday level of . Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. This involves two aspects of networking. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. First, in chain exchange (item 7) one person gives to another who then gives to a third party, and this continues to include more and more people as in pay it forward. Second, there are individual to closed group and open group exchanges (items 8 and 9). Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. Symbolic Interactionism As discussed in the opening module, W.E.B. Also, Richard Titmus in the The Gift Relationship (1997) describes the difference between exchanging blood based on it being a gift or being paid for the donation. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). After describing the couples, the author develops a symbolic interactionist model to explain how the respondents made sense of their violence. All too often, the processes of the generalized other are portrayed as supportive othering such as mothers and fathers interacting with their children in the socialization process. Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Lexington KY, 40506-0027859.257.8354, Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Online Graduate Certificate in Diversity and Inclusion, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. Eventually, they become upper-middle class by maintaining both their kinship and business ties by emphasizing positive family and business generalized others. First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. But until that day, accept this justice as a gift on my daughters wedding day.. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). Schwalbe et al. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. The whole process of oppressive othering is linked to highly charged emotions on the part of both the oppressors and the subordinates. But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. This involves two aspects of networking. However, in tracking the patterns of social interaction to their troubling consequences, we heed the advice of an early interactionist, Blumer (1969), who urged symbolic interactionist researchers . While the women largely stay at home, the male members of this kin group help each other to gain high paying jobs within the same industry as her husband with one becoming quite wealthy. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. In another way, a gift may be given to the taker, but the giver extracts a promise of a favor in the future. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. The central concepts of the approach. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of sociological theory. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Most often, more distant others are in restricted exchange relationships. The same would apply to group exchange. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. 2017; Sandstrom et al. Symbolic interaction has a particular weakness concerning a concept critical to political sociology and that is the concept of power. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. [2] Second, there are individual to group exchanges whereby a group might give a loan to an individual, and then the group expects payment by a particular date. Theories of Exchange in Social Psychology. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. [1] I use exchange theory since it is better suited to my purposes than Collins rather short discussion of power and status rituals (2002: 111-114; 348-349). In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. Although Boston elites tended to discriminate against the Irish, some Irish social entrepreneurs become more powerful over time. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. They largely do not see their bad luck as deserved but nonetheless it is what it is. They will often engage with higher ranked persons with cooperation and attempts at patronage and opportunism. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange . Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language . These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. The daughter complains to her grandmother, who has been an underpaid domestic for many decades to a prominent old and respected family. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Quantitative Initiative for Policy and Social Research (QIPSR), Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. One might say that this looks a bit like Robert Mertons theory of deviance (1938); however, the big difference is that Merton focused on blockages that exist but said little about the motivation and process by which they are accepted or overcome, and nothing about the emotions that they generate. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). Keywords Sexual Harassment Emotional Experience Identity Work Emotional Labor This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. Social networks of kin and association in social mobility settings can occur in different formats according to bonding and bridging capital. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. Consistent with its micro orientation, symbolic interactionism tries to understand stratification and thus poverty by looking at people's interaction and understandings in their daily lives. The first issue is what role social interaction plays in the reduction ethnic and racial hostility. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. They will develop positive generalized others with the subcultures that they may produce. But it is the high ranking but protected people and the low-ranking discriminated people who are the most likely to engage in social mobility conflicts. DuBois was one of the first sociologists to examine race and double consciousness (the feeling that one's identity is divided because of race) and how that influences the sense of self. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. Their generalized others will have fewer long-term relationships and rely on a constant influx of new exchangers. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. . Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. The family can also be a source of conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory. Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. We discussed in class today that "Symbolic interactionism" is how gender differences are reinforced and institutionalized through the process of "socialization". Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. They must struggle to keep their high status. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. They actively construct a generalized other that recognizes their abilities and rejects oppressive othering, and they often will create positive sub-cultures among other low status but talented people that reflect their own more positive views (through ressentiment which was discussed earlier). 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symbolic interactionism and inequality